Enhancing the resilience of agricultural development is of paramount importance for China’s agricultural system in its endeavor to address a myriad of internal and external risks and challenges. This study leveraged panel data encompassing 31 Chinese provinces, autonomous regions, and municipalities, spanning the years 2011 to 2020. Employing the entropy method, we calculated and analyzed the resilience index of agricultural development for each province. Moreover, we explored the impact and mechanisms of rural digitalization on agricultural development resilience through the application of fixed effect, mediating effect, and moderating effect models. The findings of this investigation illuminate a continuous and discernible improvement in China’s agricultural development throughout the years 2011 to 2020. The resilience of regional agricultural development can be enhanced through the improvement of rural digitalization levels, particularly in the central and western regions, regions with low and medium digitalization levels, and large grain-producing provinces. Mechanism analysis underscores that large-scale agricultural operations, digital financial development, the application of agricultural technology, and the utilization of market information serve as pivotal intermediary channels through which rural digitalization exerts its influence on agricultural development resilience. Additionally, regional human capital levels are observed to positively moderate the impact of rural digitalization on agricultural development resilience. Building upon these insights, this study puts forward a series of suggestions to make up for the shortcomings of agricultural development in various regions, improve rural digital infrastructure, stimulate the vitality of agricultural production factors, and provide digital technology training and support.