Abstract: Promoting the development of Agricultural New Quality Productivity (AEQP) and enhancing Grain Production Resilience (TGR) is an essential pathway to practice “storing grain in technology”. Based on the “pressure–state–response” model, this study constructs a TGR index system and an AEQP index system from the perspectives of new laborers, new materials, and new objects in agriculture. Using panel data from 30 provinces in China during 2011—2022, scientific measurement was conducted, and a fixed effects model was employed to examine the internal mechanism through which AEQP improves TGR. The results show: 1) From 2011 to 2022, both AEQP and TGR exhibited a significant upward trend, though with large regional disparities. 2) The development of AEQP significantly enhances TGR, and this finding remains robust after endogeneity and multiple robustness tests. 3) Frequent extreme climate events negatively regulate the causal relationship between AEQP and TGR, with the strongest impacts coming from extreme high temperatures, extreme droughts, and extreme rainfall. Further analysis reveals that agricultural insurance has a nonlinear moderating effect on the relationship between AEQP and TGR, and attention should be paid to avoiding the “high premium–low efficiency” trap. 4) Heterogeneity analysis indicates that advancing AEQP through cultivating new agricultural laborers and creating new agricultural labor objects is more effective for enhancing TGR, particularly by improving its resistance and transformation capacities. Moreover, promoting AEQP development in major grain-producing areas and in plains with low topographic relief is more conducive to strengthening TGR.